Question

The sources need to be peer-reviewed, between 3-5 years old (2014-2017). I have uploaded previous papers to help you see what’s expected in terms of outline, structure, headings, argumentation, critique, and analysis. Include an abstract, introduction, and conclusion. Integrate all of the components and assemble them into a coherent and cohesive paper.  Evaluate criminal justice leadership and organizational policies and practices using theoretical frameworks. Analyze ethical practices within political, social, economic, and ideological contexts. Apply principles of diversity and inclusiveness. Evaluate theory-based best practices for criminal justice team structuring and functioning. Propose methods for promoting innovation and creative solutions for organizational challenges. Integrate current, relevant, peer-reviewed academic research and literature. Communicate in a manner that is scholarly, professional, and consistent with the expectations for members of the criminal justice profession. Introductions Synthesize the research from your prior course assignments and include formative feedback from your instructor to complete a polished analysis of the selected problem affecting the criminal justice system. In your assignment, be sure to address the following critical elements, which align with the grading criteria: *Analyze a problem affecting criminal justice from the perspective of ethical practices within political, social, economic, and ideological contexts. *Apply theoretical frameworks to the evaluation of criminal justice leadership and organizational policies and practices. *Evaluate the concepts of diversity and inclusiveness based on best practices for criminal justice organizations. *Explain methods for assessing effectiveness of team functioning. Propose means of promoting creative solutions to organizational challenges.   Additional message: ensure all sources are PEER-REVIEWED journal articles, are dated between 2017-2017, and the paper begins with an ABSTRACT. See attached sample papers.

Answer

Contents

Abstract 2

Introduction. 3

Groups Affected By Racial Profiling. 3

Implications of Racial Profiling. 5

Common Causes of Racial Profiling in the Criminal Justice System.. 6

Theoretical Framework of the Criminal Justice Leadership. 7

Theoretical Approach to Organizational Policies and Practices. 8

Principles of Diversity and Inclusiveness in the Criminal Justice System.. 8

Best Practices for the Criminal Justice Team.. 9

Methods for Assessing Effectiveness of Team Functioning. 10

Methods for Promoting Innovation and Creative Solutions for Organizational Challenges. 11

Recommendations for Addressing Racial Profiling. 11

Conclusion. 12

References. 13

Abstract

In this study, focus is on racial profiling within the criminal justice system. Findings indicate that African Americans, Muslims and Middle Easterners and Latinos are the main groups affected by racial profiling when it comes to property and violent crimes, terrorism, and illegal immigration respectively. The main causes of racial profiling are rising crime rates, legislative provisions and overt bias. This study proposes that to address the issue of racial profiling, it is imperative to look at issues of leadership, organizational policies and practices, and best practices.

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Introduction

Racial profiling occurs when a member of a certain race is suspected of a crime or targeted for unfavorable treatment or screening based on stereotypes that is associated with the race in question (Gardner, 2014). Commonly experienced in the criminal justice system, racial profiling has become a very common occurrence in the United States of America. Law enforcement in the United States has been known to racially profile or discriminate against people of African American, Asian, Muslim and Latino descent. What is more, racial profiling has made individuals and institutions to overlook the actions of the majority race, a situation that has led the majority more likely to get away with heinous crimes.

The United States is known as the most racially diverse nation in the world. For this reason, it will be the demographic focus of this paper as most minority races in the nation face one form of discrimination or the other. It will discuss racial profiling in the criminal justice system by identifying its background, causes, implications and ways in which its effects can be countered. It will also evaluate the leadership, organizational policies and ethical practices within the criminal justice system. Eventually, reference will be made to the justice world in efforts to identify best practices for its structuring, functioning and improvement. Racial profiling is a serious problem and as such needs to be acknowledged and addressed in the best way possible. It is only by addressing the issue through leadership, best practices and legislative change in the criminal justice system that the country can be one step closer to preventing it or ending it entirely.

Groups Affected By Racial Profiling

Muslims and Middle Easterners are the subject of racial profiling when it comes to matters of terrorism. On September 11, 2001, there were a series of attacks to both the Pentagon and the World Trade Center (Horrace & Rohlin, 2016). These attacks, also known as the 9/11 attacks, were believed to have been orchestrated by Muslims and Middle Easterners leading to the birth of racial profiling among them. Henceforth, every Muslim has been subject to scrutiny under the cover that they could very well either be terrorists or working for the terrorists. This went as far as imposing restrictions on the immigration law. Every man above the age of 16 entering the United States from the Middle Eastern Countries was detained for questioning. This and other intrusive procedures continued unabated before eventually being allowed in the country in 2002.

African American individuals have been racially profiled since the nation’s founding. Recently, Michael Brown, an unarmed African American teenager, was shot and killed after being accused of assault and shop lifting. The issue has since become a major point discussion of American social and political debates. The impression from the public is that the the police officer involved, Darren Wilson, killed the unarmed teenager for no reason other than being black. This incident has since led to the inception of a movement called Black Lives Matter, which seeks to ensure that all African Americans are treated fairly in the onset of criminal acts.

Similarly, Hispanics and Latin Americans have been the subject of racial profiling. People of this descent are being targeted as illegal immigrants by law enforcement officers, who often go as far as threatening to review their immigration papers in the cases where they choose not to reveal information needed by them or when they refuse to be informants. These cases only depict the main races that are racially profiled within the criminal justice system in the United States.

Implications of Racial Profiling

Racial profiling has led to the significant distrust between the minority races and the law enforcement (Hayle, Wortley & Tanner, 2016). This is especially the case with the minorities that have broken the law before or have had a bad encounter with the officers involved. African Americans, for instance, have been brought up knowing that the law will always render them guilty even before the evidence is collected or a trial scheduled. For this reason, these individuals will avoid cooperating with the police officers for the only reason that their peers have very low chances of having a fair trial. A society that distrusts the very same people that ought to protect them makes it difficult for any progress to be made in terms of security and accountability.

Racial profiling causes a series of ripple effects. This can be seen in the way that a mistake or decision made at one stage can lead to a situation in which they are carried on to the subsequent stages. In the criminal justice system, for example, if an individual of a minority race is detained instead of being given bail, it is very possible that they will have a disadvantaged trial in which the sentence will be harsher because of having a less efficient defense counsel(Hayle, Wortley & Tanner, 2016). Such disparities in the criminal justice system have led to systemic discrimination against minorities.

The number of minorities detained after being charged with felonies is significantly higher than that of the whites charged with the same (Maira, 2016). Moreover,13% percent of the overall population in America is incarcerated.The most worrying statistic is that 38% and 19% of this imprisoned population comprises African Americans and Latinos respectively (Maira, 2016).  Besides, a white malehas a 6% chance of spending time in prison at some point in their lives while African American and Hispanic males have a 32% and 17% chance of the same respectively (Maira, 2016).

Common Causes of Racial Profiling in the Criminal Justice System

Rising crime rates across America have greatly contributed to racial profiling. Every year, the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) provides a Uniform Crime Report (UCR) that gives arrest data for the entire country. This data contains reliable statistics regarding the types of crime committed, race and age groups of the arrested offenders among other categories. According to the UCR, 39% and 31% of the arrests made for violent and property crimes respectively are of African Americansand Latinos respectively (Horrace & Rohlin, 2016). This makes it easier for law enforcers to automatically suspect an African American or Latin American individual in cases of violent and property crimes. However, it should be noted that the UCR only documents the crimes by which arrests were made and therefore, the statistics may not be accurate seeing as many crimes go unreported.

Additionally, legislativeframeworks instituted by counties and cities also bring about a system based on racial profiling against the minorities. Drug sentencing policies that lead to the ongoing war on drugs comprise a good example of these laws. Among the drug-using population, it is notable that people of color are the ones more likely to be incarcerated for a drug offense. There have since been legislative laws such as the ‘Three-Strikes Legislation’ made in 1993 that were made after studying the behavioral patterns of the people with color.

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Another common cause of racial profiling in the criminal justice system is the overt racial bias. Racism creates overt bias. Therefore, for as long as racism exists in the world, racial profiling will be an inevitable feature of the criminal justice system. In the same way, for as long as we associate violent crimes with African Americans, illegal immigration with the Hispanics and terrorism with the Muslims and Middle Easterners, racial profiling will continue to live. Overt bias comes in different forms, shapes and sizes and as such can lead to cases of indiscretion among the main players in the justice system. Racism, therefore, is a menace that ought to be reduced or done away with altogether.

Theoretical Framework of the Criminal Justice Leadership

The question of leadership is vital in the criminal justice system. Leadersare involved in the criminal justice process at every step of the way, from the management of the activities of arresting officers to the appointment/election of judges. Therefore, every individual in the capacity of leading others or making a decision is a key player in determining whether their subjects will uphold racial profiling or condemn it. The traits theory of leadership states that the character and personality of an individual differentiates a good leader from a poor one (Hurduzeu, 2015). These personality traits dictate how the individual thinks, behaves and responds or deals with the situation at hand.  Therefore, any law enforcement officers that choose to encourage racial profiling with regard to the arrests made subconsciously encourages their subordinates to do the same.

The criminal justice system also has leaders that can be discussed using the behavior theory of leadership (Horrace & Rohlin, 2016). This kind of leadership is based on the assumption that leaders are to be defined by their actions whether in an autocratic, democratic or laissez-faire style. Law enforcement officers may choose to consult their colleagues regarding what action to take as in the case of democracy while judges have the ultimate responsibility of making a judgement based on the evidence provided (Colbert et al., 2014). Therefore, it is important for all the leaders to understand that their actions can either cause negative ripple effects or encourage a series of positive ripple effects.

Theoretical Approach to Organizational Policies and Practices

Two main approaches can be used when it comes to formulating organizational practices and policies within the criminal justice system: the ration goal model and the functional systems model (Hogan & Coote, 2014). For an effective and harmonious organizational performance to be achieved, there has to be a good interaction between all the key players in the criminal justice system including the judges, defense counsel, arresting officers and the court clerk. The rational goal model is based on what the goals of the organization are and how they can be achieved. This model is especially important in giving the employees of the criminal justice systema sense of direction and drive.

The second model, the functional systems model goes beyond the goals of any organization. It seeks to define the purpose, function and needs of the organization. In the criminal justice system, this model focuses on explaining the actions of the key players rather than contrasting them with others. According to the functional systems model, the justice system is characterized by adaption, cooperation and exchange. Understanding all these three characteristics makes it easier to define the various functions of the justice system. Therefore, in a way, the model lays down the foundation for the proper allocation of duties to different sects within the same organization.

Principles of Diversity and Inclusiveness in the Criminal Justice System

Being a diverse nation, the United States is home to people of different races, color, gender, sexual orientation and cultures. While being culturally diverse is considered a desirable characteristic thing for any nation, it is faces situations where major issues arise that work against what is supposed to be a fair and unbiased justice system. It is clear that the police are driven to racial profiling because of the cultural diversity and the stereotypes associated with the same. This, then, is the reason why African Americans are automatically suspected in most property and violent crimes, Muslims and Middle Easterners for terrorism, and the Latinos for illegal migration. Law enforcers need to understand that having an effective judicial system starts with embracing cultural diversity and fighting against stereotyping and profiling.

To curb crime, authorities must first address its root causes. This is especially so because in truth, the criminal justice system seems not to be implementing the most effective way or curbing or dealing with crime. Some individuals choose to commit a crime because it makes them feel good while others do so because they are highly likely to be targeted, profiled and ultimately arrested as suspects even when they are innocent anyway. This is where the principle of inclusiveness comes about. Respecting the rights of every individual, acknowledging their worth, and embracing inclusiveness as a whole goes a long way in helping to prevent crimes.

Best Practices for the Criminal Justice Team

Training the defense counsel to be identify racial profiling at a glance goes a long way in helping to improve the operations of the criminal justice system. Moreover, training the same defense counsel on how racial profiling comes about with regard to policies, allocation of resources and practices will help in achieving the same. When it comes to the judiciary, it is imperative for the judicial leadership to encourage and support a research process aimed at determining whether the defendants were racially profiled at any step of the process by looking at the nature of their arrests, the charges given to them and their plea bargains. The judges should also be willing to develop and implement any innovations that will help stop racial profiling.

In matters regarding juvenile probation, the probation staff should be culturally diverse to ensure that individuals of all races are represented and involved during the process. The probation staff should also be willing to partner with community-based social service agencies. This partnership will ensure that the process of diversion from detention is more effective. In addition, aggressive training, policy development, monitoring and reporting of the prison staff will help address racial profiling in state prisons from all over the United States. However, all these goals can only be accomplished if the parties involved have great leadership, commitment and dedication to the cause.

Methods for Assessing Effectiveness of Team Functioning

To assess the effectiveness of the functioning of any team, not just in the criminal justice system, it is often imperative to ask the respondents directly about how they would rate the effectiveness of the organization. In the justice system, it is imperative to randomly pose the question of how effective they think the services are to both the staff and the clients. By asking them to genuinely answer the questions and without fear of any repercussion, one can be able to gauge how good or how bad their services and policies are and whether they are affecting the society in a positive or negative way. While not all answers can be relied upon, this approach would give a clear view of the justice system.

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Another way of assessing effectiveness is by deriving a variable that is specific to the functions in question. In the justice system, this variable would be able to give a single rating of the system based on the scores from different categories. Just like the CPU that gives an overview of the number, type and racial composition of the crimes committed, this variable will take into consideration fair judgement, racial profiling incidents, the fairness of a trial, satisfied clients, ratings for the police among other categories. A cocktail of these categories will ultimately lead to a single score that would then determine how effective the organization or team in question is.

Methods for Promoting Innovation and Creative Solutions for Organizational Challenges

Organizational challenges can always be overcome with a little motivation to go with the innovative process. Providing incentives to the members of the organization makes them more willing to invoke their creativity when it comes to offering solutions to the organizational challenges. These incentives can be offered plainly or they can be awarded depending on whether or not the employers catch the employees doing good. In the criminal justice system, for instance, acknowledging acts of kindness by the police officers or an ethical approach made by any key member of the criminal justice system would serve as an encouragement to better the system in their own little ways (Seaton et al., 2014). Moreover, it is also important for all the employers to create a system in which wrong-doing is punishable while good deeds are rewarded.

Another important way of promoting innovation and creating solutions with regard to organizational challenges is through coming up with grant programs that are to be offered to the best innovation. As it pertains to the criminal justice system, encouraging the continuance and support of the Field-Initiated Grant Program would be a good starting point. Launched by the Policy Office of the Bureau of Justice Assistance in 2009, the Field-Initiated Grant Program is a platform that enables individuals to be innovative and creative in coming up with ways in which the justice system can be bettered after which the best ones are offered funding (Legewie, 2016).

Recommendations for Addressing Racial Profiling

To begin with, law enforcement officers should undergo a culturally-specific orientation training. This training will see them being able to look beyond the societal stereotypes and make arrests based on pure objectivity (Weitzer, 2014). Once law enforcement officers have undergone this training, cases of racial profiling will reduce gradually and significantly. It is important, though, to note that the purpose of this training is not to stop looking into terrorism, immigration and violent crimes but rather to be open-minded enough to know that crimes could be committed by any of the races in the United States.

Another strategy is the monitoring of all the activities of the law enforcement officers, charges and sentencing. Once the key players in the criminal justice system become aware that their actions are subject to review, it is only human nature for them to adjust accordingly to avoid being on the wrong side of the ethics code. Additionally, the judges should insist on monitoring the information that is gathered about any defendant in question and especially among the minorities. Analyzing this information gives a clear depiction on the tendencies of the defendant, their psychological state and the reasons as to why they committed certain crimes.

Conclusion

Racial profiling has become a menace to the American society. It is the reason why the criminal justice system is no longer considered fair, just and free of manipulation by racial elites. Racial profiling has deep-root causes that must be addressed before it is done away with. As mentioned before, for as long as racism continues to exist, racial profiling will remain an inevitable feature of the criminal justice system. It is true that administrative leaders within justice system are doing their best to promote justice and fairness. However, issues such as racial profiling make this endeavor impossible.

References

Colbert, A. E., Barrick, M. R., & Bradley, B. H. (2014). Personality and leadership composition in top management teams: Implications for organizational effectiveness. Personnel Psychology, 67(2), 351-387.

Gardner, T. G. (2014). Racial Profiling as Collective Definition. Social Inclusion, 2(3), 052-059.

Hayle, S., Wortley, S., & Tanner, J. (2016). Race, Street Life, and Policing: Implications for Racial Profiling 1. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 58(3), 322-353.

Hogan, S. J., & Coote, L. V. (2014). Organizational culture, innovation, and performance: A test of Schein’s model. Journal of Business Research, 67(8), 1609-1621.

Horrace, W. C., & Rohlin, S. M. (2016). How dark is dark? Bright lights, big city, racial profiling. Review of Economics and Statistics, 98(2), 226-232.

Hurduzeu, R.E. (2015). The impact of leadership on organizational performance. SEA-Practical Application of Science, (7), 289-294.

Legewie, J. (2016). Racial Profiling and Use of Force in Police Stops: How Local Events Trigger Periods of Increased Discrimination. American Journal of Sociology, 122(2), 379-424.

Maira, S. (2016). “Racial Profiling” in the War on Terror Cultural Citizenship and South Asian Muslim Youth in the United States. Contemporary Asian America: A Multidisciplinary Reader, 444.

Seaton, E. K., Upton, R., Gilbert, A., & Volpe, V. (2014). A moderated mediation model: Racial discrimination, coping strategies, and racial identity among Black adolescents. Child Development, 85(3), 882-890.

Weitzer, R. (2014). Police race relations. The Oxford Handbook of Police and Policing, 339.